What precautions are advised for eating parsnips?

Parsnips are susceptible to moisture loss and tend to shrivel when placed by growers in cold storage to convert their starch to sugar. To prevent this, they are often heavily waxed. The FDA has approved six different wax compounds for use on produce, including shellac, paraffin, palm oil derivatives, and synthetic resins.

Although the waxes themselves likely pose little health risk, powerful pesticides or fungicides are frequently added to them. Since the waxes cannot be washed off with water, the fungicide or pesticide becomes cemented to the produce. To remove it, soak parsnips in a mild solution of additive-free soap, such as Ivory or pure castile soap from a health food store, or use one of the biodegradable fruit and vegetable cleansers now available.

You can also peel off the skin, but the downside of this technique is that many nutrients are concentrated in the plant's skin and outer layers. Should you decide to try harvesting and cooking wild parsnip, exercise caution. Cases have been reported of people being poisoned by what they thought were wild parsnips, when what they had actually eaten was water hemlock, a plant that belongs to the same botanical family as the parsnip and has a very similar appearance.

Broccoli is a member of the cabbage family, which contains goitrogens, naturally occurring substances that can interfere with the functioning of the thyroid gland. Dietary goitrogens are usually of no clinical importance unless they are consumed in large amounts or there is coexisting iodine deficiency. Cooking broccoli helps to inactivate the goitrogenic compounds.

Individuals with already existing and untreated thyroid problems may want to avoid consumption of broccoli in their raw form for this reason.

Cabbage-family vegetables contain goitrogens, compounds that can interfere with thyroid hormone action in certain situations, primarily when iodine levels are low. The goitrogens are largely isothiocyanates, which block the utilization of iodine; however, despite our warning here, there is no evidence that these compounds in cruciferous vegetables interfere with thyroid function to any significant degree when dietary iodine levels are adequate. Furthermore, cooking may help inactivate the goitrogenic compounds found in cabbage and other cruciferous vegetables.

If large quantities of raw cruciferous vegetables -- more than four servings per week -- are being consumed, it is a good idea that the diet also contain adequate amounts of iodine. Iodine is found in kelp and other seaweeds, vegetables grown near the sea, seafood, iodized salt, and food supplements.

The carotenes from ingested carrots are stored in adipose tissue, the liver, other organs (the adrenals, testes, and ovaries have the highest concentrations), and the skin. Ingesting large quantities of carotenes can lead to a yellowing of the skin known as carotenodermia. This occurrence is not serious; in fact, it may be beneficial in protecting against sun damage to the skin.

Sometimes carotenodermia is not directly attributable to dietary intake or supplementation, as it may be indicative of a deficiency in a necessary factor in the conversion of beta-carotene to vitamin A, such as zinc, thyroid hormone, vitamin C, or protein. The ingestion of large amounts of carrots or carrot juice -- 0.45 to 1.0 kg of fresh carrots per day for several years -- has, however, been shown to cause a decrease in the number of white blood cells, as well as menstrual disorders. Since carrots are among the foods on which pesticide residues have been most frequently found, we recommend choosing carrots grown organically.

Cauliflower contains goitrogens, a naturally occurring substance that can interfere with the functioning of the thyroid gland. Dietary goitrogens are usually of no clinical importance unless they are consumed in large amounts or there is coexisting iodine deficiency. Cooking cauliflower helps to inactivate the goitrogenic compounds.

Individuals with already existing and untreated thyroid problems may want to avoid consumption of cauliflower in their raw form for this reason.

Since cucumbers are among the foods on which pesticide residues have been most frequently found, we recommend choosing cucumbers that have been organically grown. In addition, cucumbers are often waxed to protect them from bruising during shipping. Plant-, insect-, animal-, or petroleum-based waxes may be used.

Since you may not be able to determine the source of these waxes, again, we recommend choosing organically grown cucumbers.

Eggplant is one of the vegetables in the nightshade (Solanaceae) family, which includes bell pepper, tomatoes, and potatoes. Anecdotal case histories link improvement in arthritic symptoms with removal of these foods. Although no case-controlled scientific studies confirm these observations, some individuals consuming nightshade-family vegetables experience an aggravation of arthritic symptoms and may benefit from limiting or avoiding these foods.

Eggplant contains significant amounts of oxalate. Individuals with a history of oxalate-containing kidney stones should avoid overconsuming them.

Unlike the Irish potato's, the skin of the "Mexican potato" is inedible. Also, the seeds of the jicama plant are reputed to be poisonous. The vines are also considered inedible and are discarded.

Leeks contain a small amount of oxalate. Individuals with a history of oxalate-containing kidney stones should avoid overconsuming them.

Onions contain small amounts of oxalate. Individuals with a history of oxalate-containing kidney stones should avoid overconsuming them.

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Even though many people find milk and cheeses hard to digest, there are variations among these foods. Although a cup of cow's milk contains approximately 10 to 12 grams of lactose, the bacteria and fermenting process that accompany cheese production tends to decrease lactose levels in the final cheese product. In general, soft cheeses contain more lactose than hard cheeses.

Aged cheeses, such as cheddar and Swiss, contain little or no lactose. While a cup of soft cheese may be nearly identical to a cup of cow's milk in terms of lactose content, 1 ounce of hard cheese typically contains much less (6 to 12 grams versus 0 to 3 grams, respectively). The more a hard cheese ages, the lower the lactose content.

As a result, many people with lactose intolerance can eat modest amounts of harder cheeses without suffering intestinal distress. Cheese and other dairy products are among the foods most commonly associated with allergic reactions, particularly in children. Aged cheeses are also associated with tension and migraine headaches.

Individuals with allergies to daisies or other members of the Compositae family may wish to avoid Belgian endive.

Since potatoes are among the foods on which pesticide residues have been most frequently found, choose organic varieties when available. If organic potatoes are not available, soak them in a mild solution of additive-free soap or produce wash, then either peel or scrub thoroughly with a natural bristle vegetable brush under cool running water. Potatoes are one of the vegetables in the nightshade (Solanaceae) family, which includes eggplant, peppers, and tomatoes.

Anecdotal case histories link improvement in arthritic symptoms with removal of these foods. Although no case-controlled scientific studies confirm these observations, some individuals consuming nightshade-family vegetables experience an aggravation of arthritic symptoms and may benefit from limiting or avoiding these foods.

Spinach contains a high amount of oxalate. Individuals with a history of oxalate-containing kidney stones should avoid overconsuming it. Spinach also contains purines and should be consumed in moderation by people with gout.

Since spinach is among the foods on which pesticide residues have been most frequently found, we recommend choosing spinach grown organically. If not, then be sure to prepare it as described above.

Since celery is among the foods on which pesticide residues have been most frequently found, we recommend choosing celery that has been organically grown.