What hydrogen atoms and the oxygen atom in a water molecule are held by?

A mass of an element is made tip of a collection of molecules. Each molecule of an element as a rule is composed of two atoms. Elements combine to form compound substances of various numbers of atoms in the molecule.

Water is an example of a compound substance, or chemical compound. Its molecule contains three atoms; two atoms of hydrogen, and one atom of oxygen. If a quantity of these two elements were mixed, the result would be a mechanical mixture of the molecules of the two.

But if heat, or some other adequate cause were made to act, chemical action would follow, and the molecules, splitting up, would combine atom with atom. Part of a molecule of oxygen—one atom—would combine with part of two molecules of hydrogen—two atoms. The result would be the production of a quantity of molecules of water.

Each water molecule contains one atom of oxygen and two atoms of hydrogen. The splitting-up of the elemental molecules into atoms is synchronous with their combining into molecules, so that an atom never exists alone. The molecules of the elements, oxygen and hydrogen, have disappeared, and in their places are molecules of water.

There are about eighty kinds of atoms known, one kind for each element, and out of these the material world is made. INVARIABILITY OF COMPOSITION. —The invariability of composition by weight of chemical compounds is a fundamental law of chemistry.

Thus water under all circumstances consists of 88.88% of oxygen and 11.11% of hydrogen. This establishes a relation between the weights of the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen in the water molecule, which is 1: 8. Oxygen and hydrogen are gaseous under ordinary conditions.

If water is decomposed, and the gases are collected and measured, there will always be two volumes of hydrogen to one of oxygen. This illustrates another fundamental law—the invariability of composition by gaseous volume of chemical compounds. From the composition by volume of water its molecule is taken as composed of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen, on the assumption that in a given volume of any gas there is the same number of molecules.

As there are two atoms in the molecules of both of these elements, the above may be put in a more popular way thus: the atoms of hydrogen and oxygen occupy the same space. The ratio spoken of above, of 1: 8, is therefore the ratio of two atoms of hydrogen to one of oxygen. It follows that the ratio of one atom of hydrogen to one atom of oxygen is 1:16.

The numbers 1 and 16 thus determined, are the atomic weights of hydrogen and oxygen respectively. Strictly speaking they are not weights at all, only numbers expressing the relation of weights. Atomic weights are determined for all the elements, based on several considerations, such as those outlined for the atoms of oxygen and hydrogen.

Thus the term atom indicates not only the constituents of molecules, but has a quantitative meaning, the proportional part of the element which enters into compounds. The sum of the weights of the atoms in a molecule is the molecular weight of the substance. Thus the molecular weight of water is the sum of the weights of two hydrogen atoms, which is two, and of one oxygen atom, which is sixteen, a total of eighteen.

If we divide the molecular weight of a compound into the atomic weight of the atoms of any element in its molecule, it will give the proportion of the element in the compound. Taking water again, if we divide its molecular weight, 18, into the weight of the atoms of hydrogen m its molecule, 2, we obtain the fraction 2/18 which expresses the proportion of hydrogen in water. The same process gives the proportion of oxygen in water as 16/18.

Every element has its own atomic weight, and the invariability of chemical composition by weight is explained by the invariability of the atomic weights of the elements. Tables of the atomic weights of the elements are given in all chemical textbooks. The relations of the atomic weights to each other are several.

The atom of lowest weight is the hydrogen atom. It is usually taken as one, which is very nearly its exact value if oxygen is taken as sixteen. On this basis one quarter of the other elements will have atomic weights that are whole numbers.

This indicates a remarkable simplicity of relationship of weights, which is carried out by the close approach of the rest of the elements to the same condition, as regards their atomic weights. The range of the atomic weights is a narrow one. That of hydrogen is 1.008—that of uranium 238.3. The latter is the heaviest of all.

Between these all the other atomic weights lie. Many of the elements resemble each other in their chemical relations. It might appear that those nearest to each other in atomic weight should be of similar properties.

This is not the case. If the elements are written down in the order of their atomic weights, beginning with the lightest and ending with the heaviest, it will be found that the position of an element in the series will indicate pretty clearly its properties. The elements will be found to be so arranged in the list that any element will be related as regards its chemical properties to the element eight places removed from it.

This relationship may be thus expressed: the properties of an element are a periodic function of its atomic weight. —This relation is called Mendeleeff's Law, from one of two chemists who independently developed it. The elements may, as before said, be written down in the order of their atomic weights, but in eight vertical columns.

Along the top line the eight elements of lightest atomic weights are written in the order of their weights, followed on the second line by the next eight, also in the order of their atomic weights. This arrangement, obviously, when carried out brings the elements eight atomic weights apart, into vertical columns. It will be found that all the elements in any vertical column are of similar chemical properties.

When Mendeleeff made out his table it was supposed that several elements were as yet undiscovered. The table also brought out clearly certain numerical relations of the atomic weights. These together with other factors caused him to leave blank spaces in his table, which none of the known elements could fill.

For these places hypothetical elements were assumed, whose general properties and atomic weights were stated by him. One by one these elements have been discovered, so that Mendeleeff's Law predicted the existence of elements later to be discovered. These discoveries of predicted elements constitute one of the greatest triumphs of chemical science.

Up to within a very recent period the atom was treated as the smallest division of matter, although the possibility of the transmutation of the elements in some way, or in some degree, has long been considered a possibility. It was conjectured that all the elements might be composed of some one substance, for which a name, protyle, meaning first material, was coined. This seemed to conflict with the accepted definition of the atom, as protyle indicated something anterior to or preceding it.

The idea rested in abeyance, as there was little ground for building up a theory to include it. Recent discoveries have resuscitated this never quite abandoned theory; protyle seems to have been discovered, and the atom has ceased to hold its place as the ultimate division of matter. —The most recent theory holds that the atom is composite, and is built up of still minuter particles, called corpuscules.

As far as the ordinary processes of chemistry are concerned the atom remains as it was. But investigations in the field of radioactivity, largely physical and partly chemical, go to prove that the atom, built up of corpuscules as said above, depends for its atomic weight upon the number of corpuscules in it, and these corpuscules are all identical in nature. In these corpuscules we have the one first material, or protyle.

It follows that the only difference between atoms of different elements is in the number of corpuscules they contain. Any process which would change the' number of corpuscules in the atoms of an element would change the element into another one, thus carrying out the transmutation of elements. So far, one transmutation is accepted as effected.

Experiments in radioactivity go to prove that some elements, notably radium, project particles of inconceivable minuteness into space.